Signaling molecules from either plant or fungi are perceived by the other using receptors. Many plants monitor their ecosystem for bacteria or fungi using receptor-kinases, which as cell surface proteins activate a signaling cascade in the cell to change it’s function in some way. Research groups continue to unearth various themes on this mechanisms for plant/mycorrhizal communication.
One model, identified Lipochitooligosaccharides (LCO) as signal molecules used by nitrogen fixing bacteria (rhizobia) to alter how plant roots form a symbiotic relationship. Communication using LCOs allows plants to gain nitrogen from soil bacteria and bacteria to gain carbon in the form of plant sugars. Similar molecules are excreted by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. This research noted that a mixture of sulphated and non-sulphated lipochitooligosaccharides (LCOs) secreted from the AM fungi, Glomus intraradices, stimulated root branching and growth in the legume Medicago truncatula. Apparently, the diffusible chemicals activated plant root genes that code for a series of receptor kinase. In M. truncatula, rhizobium LCO secretions also stimulate the same symbiotic pathway. The researchers found this signaling effect active in diverse plant species.
In other experiments, scientists found a hydrolase protein (D14L), which functions deep within the cell, modulating plant communication with AM fungi. This receptor had originally been characterized as a receptor for Karrikin, a plant hormone produced when plant material is burned. In species such as eucalyptus and the tobacco family, this hormone detects smoke and stimulates seed germination after fire has decimated an ecosystem. It allows those plants, known as fire chasers, to outcompete in the newly altered environment. What is particularly interesting – the same protein is part of early plant developmental interaction with light, and may have played an evolutionary role in plant emergence on to land.
So burn a little incense, light a candle, offer up something sweet and see if your mycorrhizal fungus responds. You don’t need to burn down the entire house!
Dr. Martha Hawes has been a pioneering researcher on plant root border cells. I became fascinated with their role while researching the fungal/plant communication in the rhizosphere of goldenseal (Hydrastis canadendis) during my doctorate. I called her lab hoping someone might speak with me. She answered and spent an hour pointing out important research papers and suggesting approaches I might take to incorporate root border cell research. She was always open to helping anyone with a curious mind and passion for the subject into which she’d immersed her career efforts. I’m grateful to her for showing me generosity and kindness.
Plant root border cells are formed at the root tip where physical and biological interactions occur with the soil and microbe communities. The cells are genetically programmed to separate from the rest of the root structure and from each other. Cell-wall degrading enzymes dissolve cell wall matrix material that holds plant cells together. These “outpost” remain biologically active, excreting proteins and smaller molecules into the surrounding environment. Both types of molecules act as signals turning on/off gene expression to stimulate or prevent the growth of soil-borne bacteria and fungi. One important role appears to be in establishing a symbiotic relationship with mycorrhizal fungi (see previous post).
Few plants such as the Arabidopsis thaliana, which do not produce root border cells, also do not form mycorrhizal associations. In most plants, the content of border cells are accessible only to microorganisms able to recognize and respond to specific root signals. Among the compounds located in root border cells of various plants, medicinally valuable isoflavonoids modulate stable ecological relationships between mycorrhizal fungi and plant root tissue. These fungi stimulate the production of isoflavonoid in plant root tissue, while simultaneously the isoflavonoids increase mycorrhizal spore germination. The spores are an important survival mechanism used by the fungi. Measuring the activity in root border cells in “real time” as they interact with fungi is one of the great challenges to plant biologists.
Here’s a short video showing the release of border cells from a plant root cap:
Plants and organisms in the rhizosphere (area of soil surrounding plant roots) are living organisms and part of a complex ecosystem requiring communication skills. Two different classes of compounds are important communicators – flavonoids and strigolactones – both ubiquitous in plants across multiple taxa. Of note, strigolactones were originally detected (Bouwmeester et al.) in plant root exudate stimulating seed germination of parasitic plants (genera Striga and Orobanche). These weedy species parasites host plant roots for nutrients.
Flavonoid basal structures are highly varied, including flavones, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, flavanones, isoflavonoids, isoflavans and pterocarpans. They accumulate at root tips or root cap and makeup a large portion of root exudate. The fact these structures are easily modified and that their biosynthesis can be triggered by a numerous transcription factors points strongly to a role as elicited, signaling compounds. The conversation starters, the deal makers, they patrol the root neighborhood deciding who’s gonna join the party.
Hassan and Mathesius (2012) noted in more technical terms that this localization allows them to influence the rhizosphere environment – increasing the bioavailability of both phosphorous and iron, inducing Rhizobium nod genes (for nitrogen fixation), determining host specificity, and influencing bacterial quorum sensing. They also influence soil fungi, both parasite and non-parasite, to investigate their environment by stimulating macronidial germination. These are spore structures that allow the fungus to remain in a dormant state until the surrounding soil supports their growth (Ruan et al.). Plants represent nutrient sources – the internal cell structures for parasites, and the substances released from plant root such as carbohydrates, organic acids, and proteins (root exudate) for non-parasitic fungi.
One of the most fascinating chemical conversations involves how both flavonoids and strigolactones trigger AM fungi to investigate the rhizosphere more actively, by stimulating sporulation (breaking out of their dormant state), hyphal branching (similar to send out runners), and root colonization. Interestingly, changes to flavonoid ratios in root exudate can alter the symbiotic relationship and defines how mature the relationship is developmentally.
Metabolic pathways in living organisms require dedicated gene expression. They tend to have been around a long time. Plants originated as aquatic organisms. They had no root systems. The prevalent theory on their terrestrial adaptation suggests that root exudate facilitated symbiosis with AM fungi, which allowed primitive land plants to survive by providing them an early “root system”.
A paper by Delaux et. al. (2012) tested whether the presence of strigolactones in the aquatic green algae lineage may have helped them adapt to and colonize terrestrial environments. The researchers used a bioassay to detect branching of a AM fungus, Gigaspora rosea, to show strigolactones were present in the green algae Charales corallina. They also applied a synthetic strigolactone to C. coralina, which stimulated rhizoid elongation in the algae. Rhizoids were early “root-like” structures. The results beg the question of whether strigolactone biosynthesis predates AM fungal colonization and reinforces the idea that what survives adapts to changes in habitat, since anchoring to land increased the plant’s ability to acquire water and nutrients.
Strigolactones General Chemical Structure
Experiments on potato found that strigolactone may be involved in resource partitioning by maintaining phosphate and nitrogen homeostasis in plants (Pasare et al., 2013). Researchers reported that strigolactones enhanced plant association with AM fungi by increased branching of the AM hyphae (Giovannetti et al.). We see the effect of this type of chemical conversation, both internally within the plant and externally, with the fungus, to stimulate exploration.
Strigolactones do also play a role as a plant hormone and appear to regulate axillary growth, lateral branching, and decreased apical dominance (Delavault et al.). This mimics the biological impact on fungi and suggestions that plants explore their aerial environment of air and sunlight.
Rasmussen et al. (2012) noted the ability of strigolactones to impact root exploration in plants, limiting adventitious rooting by inhibiting the initial formative divisions of founder cells. These phenomena may point to the plant directing both the timing and directionality of new root growth in response to the presence/absence of appropriate soil symbionts.
So then, what triggers strigolactone or flavonid secretions? What’s the chemical cross talk originating from the fungal side of the conversation?
