Fermentation as an Extraction Method

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Although most cultures have fermented food as a staple in their dietary patterns, little has been reported on the use of fermentation as an herbal extraction method. The process may contribute more than just modifying solvent pH. Rizzello et al. (2013) reported using a lactic acid fermentation with specific yeast strains that improved the antioxidant activity of Echinacea purpurea. They compared fermentation extraction to either a methanol or water extract without fermentation. The greatest antimicrobial activity was associated with low molecular mass compounds negated in the presence of digestive enzymes, suggesting small peptides as the active agent.  The authors cited other experiments with grapes, soy and cereal grains where the fermentation process increased bio-availability of  certain compounds and produced novel chemical species.

This process is worth exploring by both herbal supplement companies and herbalist as a new medicine making method. Traditional texts provide some guidance.  Enzymatic processes can optimize extraction of plant cellular content at lower temperatures. And research (Mishra et al., 2010; Mulay and Khale, 2011) applying traditional Ayurvedic methods of  fermented extraction found reduced toxicity in the final product. This opens up a little explored market around functional foods as well.

Reference:

  1. Mishra AK, Gupta A, Gupta V, Sand R, Bansal P. 2010. Asava and arishta: an Ayrvedic medicine – an overview. Int J Pharm Biol Arch. 1(1):24–30.
  2. Mulay S, Khale A. 2011. Asavarishtas through improved fermentation technology. Int J Pharma Sci Res. 2(6):1421–1425.
  3. Rizzello, CG et al. (2013) Lactic acid fermentation as a tool to enhance the functional features of Echinacea spp. Microbial Cell Factories. 12:44-59.

 

Not Blueberry Pie, but Close

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Vaccinium myrtillus
Image via Wikipedia

Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) contains varying levels of phenolic compounds – anthocyanins, chlorogenic acid derivatives, hydroxycinnamic acids, flavonol glycosides, catechins, and proanthocyanidins. Research by Martz et al (2010) elucidated how levels of bilberry leaf phenolics differed along an ecological gradient in boreal forests running north to south in Finland. These regions differ in latitude, altitude, over story cover, levels of continuous light, temperature and associated frost spells.

An analysis of bilberry leaves showed that major phenolic changes in bilberry leaves appeared in the first stages of leaf development. As important, synthesis and accumulation of flavonoids was delayed in the forest compared to the high light sites. Two-fold higher flavonoid levels appeared in leaf tissue growing in high-light intensity sites, higher latitudes, and/or higher altitudes compared to in lower altitudes and low-light intensity sites.

Close and Mcarther (2002) previously theorized that the presence of greater phenolic levels in leaf tissue found in northern regions was a response to colder temperatures, which would limit essential enzyme function, during periods of maximal photo-oxidative stress (Close and Mcarther, 2002).  However, Martz et al (2010) also showed that leaf flavanoid genes were highly expressed in shade, but that the timing of expression appeared to alter the relative metabolite levels in shade compared to sun exposed bilberry leaf.

Mudge et al., (2016), researched phenolic profiles of wild elderberry fruits (Sambucus nigra subsp. canadensis) over two years in eastern US, noting that flavanols (quercitin, isoquercitin, rutin) and chlorogenic acid metabolite concentrations were higher in the southeast, particularly interior. They suggested the variation of phytochemical profiles of the berries were impacted by genetic or environmental factors without understanding on which was more important.

What’s missing from the data picture includes a more complex measurement of ecological influences, such as response to herbivory and rhizosphere fungal associations? This type of whole community data would help to build a more complete picture of  plant response.

This requires sampling, sampling, sampling.

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  1. Martz, F., Jaakola, L., Julkunen-Tiitto, R. and Stark, S. (2010). Phenolic Composition and Antioxidant Capacity of Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) Leaves in Northern Europe Following Foliar Development and Along Environmental Gradients. J Chem Ecol, published online, 19 August 2010
  2. Close, D.C., and Mcarther, C. (2002). Rethinking the role of many plant phenolics—protection from photodamage not herbivores? Oikos. 99:166–172
  3. Mudge, E., Applequist, W. L., Finley, J., Lister, P., Townesmith, A. K., Walker, K. M., & Brown, P. N. (2016). Variation of Select Flavonols and Chlorogenic Acid Content of Elderberry Collected Throughout the Eastern United States. Journal of food composition and analysis : an official publication of the United Nations University, International Network of Food Data Systems, 47, 52–59.

Ginseng Allelopathy in the Rhizosphere

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The active, therapeutic phytochemicals in the Panax spp. appear to be ginsenosides that consist of an aglycone base structure and glycosides (sugar molecules). These compounds can be referred to as triterpene glycosides, triterpene saponins and steroid saponins. The varied nomenclature comes from the multiple ways of defining the molecule. Saponins froth when shaken. And from the image below, ginsenoside aglycones contain a steroid backbone. Based on the numbers of carbons they can also be classified as a triterpene. 

Ginsensodie Steroid

So what role do these phytochemicals they play on the plants behalf? Saponins as class have anti-fungal properties and may act allelopathically (Carter et al., 1999). The sterol portion of the molecule appears to be inserted into and disrupt fungal membrane integrity by interacting with fungal sterols present.

Nicole et al. (2002) noted that American ginseng saponins inhibit in vitro growth of the fungus Trichoderma spp., but stimulate growth of Cylindrocarpon destructans.

In a followup study to  investigate the concentration of ginsensosides in rhizosphere, Nicol et al. (2003) collected ginsenosides from root associated soil several times between 1999-2002. They found that the concentration in the soil ranged 0.02 – 0.098%. They also collected root exudate from pot-grown ginseng over 22 days, using an exudate trapping system,  which yielded a concentration of 0.6% ginsenosides. We need to test whether this soil concentration level can be considered an active allelopathic level.

Additional evidence supporting the sterol disruption hypothesis can be found in the Pythiaceous fungi (especially Pythium spp. and Phytophthora spp.) that lack sterols in their  cell walls.  Growth of these fungi appear to be stimulated by both the presence of fungal sterols (ergosterol) and ginsenosides in the medium of in vitro studies. The authors suggested potential mechanisms include: 

The ginsenosides…

  • provide a carbon sink for the fungus.
  • alter fungal membranes in a positive manner.
  • act as a fungal growth hormone.

Future studies should look at the ratio of ginsensosides and their respective influence on fungi.

References:

  1. Carter, JP, Spink, J, Cannon, PF, Daniels, and Osbourn, AE. (1999) Isolation, Characterization, and Avenacin Sensitivity of a Diverse Collection of Cereal-Root- Colonizing Fungi.AppliedandEnvironmentalMicrobiology. 65(8): 3364–3372.
  2. Nicol, RW, Traquair, JA and , Bernards, MA. (2002) Ginsenosides as host resistance factors in American ginseng (Panaxquinquefolius).CanadianJournalofBotany. 80(5): 557-562.
  3. Nicol RW, Yousef L, Traquair JA, and Bernards MA. (2003) Ginsenosides stimulate the growth of soilborne pathogens of American ginseng.Phytochemistry. 64(1):257-64.